Last Update: 6th June 2024
Professor Dr. Andrew Huberman claims that Tongkat Ali increases testosterone. As a known testosterone supplement, does it always work?
In this article, we shall investigate the effects of Tongkat Ali on testosterone in young adults, middle-aged adults, seniors and those diagnosed with hypogonadism due to aging and exercised-induced hypogonadism in athletes.
Our guide will provide answers and greater clarity on Tongkat Ali’s effectiveness, potency, efficacy and, the probability of it working to boost testosterone levels.
Tongkat Ali is a key active ingredient in many natural testosterone-boosting supplements for more than two decades. It contains adaptogenic and anabolic properties from its bioactive ingredients such as eurycomanone, eurypeptides, glycosaponin – under the family of alkaloids and quassinoids that are believed to increase testosterone production through pituitary and adrenal glands.
According to a published meta-review study by researcher Kristian Leisegang from the School of Natural Medicine in South Africa, nine randomized-controlled studies (RCT) showed a significant increase of total testosterone after the supplementation of Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia) extract both in healthy adults and hypogonadal men.
At least, lab test data gives you some level of confidence that it will work, but there is more to it.
Tongkat Ali is often marketed as a T-booster, but due to the daily fluctuation of our testosterone and the inaccuracies of testosterone test protocols, the after-effects of testosterone improvements -(eg: improved libido, stamina, endurance, energy and mood) are often the best testosterone performance markers to gauge if it works for you.
Urologist and men’s health expert Dr. Kapadia who wrote about Tongkat Ali’s effect on testosterone said that “Tongkat Ali’s boost in testosterone is probably the most valid and supported by several studies, including one that showed that 200 milligrams of the extract each day brought testosterone levels to normal values in over 90% of study subjects in just one month.”
Whilst Tongkat Ali may be used as a daily supplement to elevate your testosterone supplement, expert warns that users must choose the right type of Tongkat Ali that work best. Often ingredients containing standardized extract with higher eurycomanone or glycosaponin content result in higher efficacy, improving your chance to gain higher testosterone levels.
“I encourage you to do your due diligence and choose a supplement company with a proven track record of quality and purity” he added
For it to work as a testosterone booster, choose a reputable Tongkat Ali supplement brand with clinically-proven extracts with the highest quality standards. There have been so many testosterone supplement scams out there in the US and UK.
Past randomized clinical studies showed mild-to-significant effects of Tongkat Ali in increasing testosterone levels which largely depends on the type of extracts used (eg: standardized vs. non-standardized), the type of Tongkat Ali species, purity, your health condition and your baseline testosterone levels.
And more importantly, Yellow Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia) remains the best type of species that gives you higher testosterone boost. This is backed by a 2024 study published in the Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research on 3 species of Tongkat Ali extracts (i.e taken from Yellow, Black and Red Tongkat Ali) showing an increase of testosterone secretion by 56.02 nmol/L (41.1%), 40.49 nmol/L (18.65%) and 36.99 nmol/L (10.93%), respectively.
Yellow Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia) has the largest effect on testosterone compared to Black Tongkat Ali (Polyathia bullata) and Red Tongkat Ali (Stema tuberosa)
Yes, Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia) contains a specific type of alkaloids known as eurycomanone and saponin (classified as glycosaponin) – both are known for their adaptogenic and hormonal-modulating properties that regulate, optimize and increase testosterone levels. There is sufficient evidence (from in-vitro, animal and human studies) to support that these bioactive ingredients may help higher testosterone production in the testes and adrenal glands.
The type of alkaloids and saponins found in Tongkat Ali are unique and current studies found that it has major influence on testosterone production primarily by:
Recent development on clinical trials and studies related standardized Tongkat Ali extracts showed greater influence in testosterone production due to higher bioavailability of eurycomanone (alkaloids >1%) and glycosaponin (i.e saponin >30%). This may help those who seek for optimal testosterone support, making it beneficial for aging males or highly-trained athletes that are constantly exposed to testosterone drop or fluctuations.
Saponins found in Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia) are also found in herbs such as Tribulus Terrestris, Fadogia agrestis, and Panax ginseng, albeit in higher quantity (for the same dry weight) – which exhibit similar testosterone-boosting properties through similar mechanism of actions involving the stimulation of luteinizing hormone (LH) and modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis.
Our assessment showed greater evidence that Tongkat Ali may contribute to higher testosterone production, that can be measured in terms of performance outcomes such as improved endurance, energy or stamina.
The existing 1-month study in 76 older men with low testosterone found that taking 200 mg of tongkat ali extract per day significantly increased levels of this hormone to normal values in over 90% of participants may not be the best yard stick.
Measuring the effects of Tongkat Ali on testosterone accurately requires a paradigm shift on how these supposedly elevated salivary testosterone or blood testosterone levels affect human performance.
When we tested standardized Tongkat Ali hot water extract on a group of recreational athletes (n=87), data from Garmin and Strava showed runners can go further distance by approximately 10-20% more miles, run faster by 15% improvement, suggesting that in theory, the elevated testosterone may have contributed to mitochondrial biogenesis, which enhances the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in skeletal muscles that also helps them achieve greater running performance. In addition, research has shown that higher mitochondria in our body correlates closely to a greater aerobic capacity (VO2 max), helping endurance athletes run longer distances.
“Higher or optimal testosterone from Tongkat Ali’s glycosaponin and eurycamone may stimulate higher erythropoiesis (red blood cell production) by increasing erythropoietin (EPO) levels.” said Tim, a certified wellness coach from Chicago. He added that Tongkat Ali study showed it can increase more red blood cells (RBCs) and it also means higher oxygen transport to muscles, delaying the onset of anaerobic fatigue when tested by endurance athletes.
As we conclude our observation, there are better methods to measure testosterone improvement other than traditional bloodwork or looking for biological improvement markers in isolation when testing for Tongkat Ali’s efficacy due to the nature of rapid fluctuation of testosterone in each individuals.
How do I know if Tongkat Ali had actually increased my testosterone?
The best stress test to confirm that Tongkat Ali work on your testosterone is by subjecting your body to strenuous physical or energy-consuming activities such as running. This works well if you do not have access to bloodtest kit, or if you are looking for visible improvements that are associated with higher testosterone outcomes.
If the answer to that is “yes, I can run further distance now”, or “it takes me shorter time to achieve a longer distance when running”, than these marginal-but-relevant signs may indicate a strong possibility that Tongkat Ali did work to boost higher testosterone hormone production – as it takes time for the bioactive ingredients to induce higher testosterone hormone that flows through your bloodstream into the respective organs, muscles and various functions in your body that keep you feeling energized or feeling stronger.
A more concrete and correct explanation to the above is that Tongkat Ali does not produce artificial boost of a “higher testosterone” than your body can take, but rather regulate and optimize the production of testosterone when your body needs it the most (eg: during physically-demanding activities or stressful situations)
From the 9 randomized-controlled trials in the meta-review study, we estimate the probability for Tongkat Ali to induce an increase in testosterone production is between 59% to 85% based on 400mg daily consumption for 8 to 12 weeks.
There is a higher probability of Tongkat Ali inducing a higher testosterone production if you are taking at high dose of more than 600mg and pairing it with moderate-to-high intensity exercises such as running, sprinting and weightlifting. As the blood flow circulation increases through physical activities, this helps the bioactive Tongkat Ali ingredients in the blood to stimulate testosterone production during that intense period of physical activities.
Our conclusion that Tongkat Ali may work 85% to 90% of the time for active adults is based on our probability logistic regression model that takes into account dosage requirements, average years, and duration as per below, where P= is the probability of Tongkat Ali to induce an increase of testosterone levels (based on existing studies).
Assumptions:
Our estimated probability using logistics regression model showed that Tongkat Ali supplementation may increase testosterone levels in 8 weeks for a 50-year-old male taking 400mg daily at 59.8%. Past results showed 20 to 50% improvement in testosterone, but largely depends on your lifestyle, duration of exercises and dosage.
As a comparison, the probability that Tongkat Ali supplementation increases testosterone levels for a 40-year-old male taking 400 mg daily for 12 weeks is approximately 85.8%.
Taking into account higher potency and efficacy from standardized Tongkat Ali hot water extract for the same dosage and duration, there is a greater chance of Tongkat Ali supplementation contributing to higher testosterone production at 90% probability.
You can and should incorporate regular daily exercises as part of Tongkat Ali supplementation to ensure you gain higher testosterone production. This is the only way to ensure it works for you.
Studies have shown exercises such as sprinting, running and weight lifting increase testosterone production temporarily at least for 15 to 30 minutes after workouts.
Therefore, pairing Tongkat Ali supplementation of 400mg with regular high-intensity exercises or weight training increases the likelihood of a moderate-to-significant increase in testosterone levels. This protocol, when applied over 12 weeks or longer, enables prolonged production of testosterone at a higher rate.
For trained athletes, you may record a mild improvement of testosterone levels from your bloodwork, but the after-effects of testosterone improvements on athletic performance markers are significant (eg: visceral fat reduction, lower body fat, higher lean mass, overall better body composition score, faster muscle recovery and higher endurance.
This benefits the overall testosterone production ecosystem and endocrine system. A 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) on humans showed compelling evidence of the effects of Tongkat Ali in increasing total testosterone, free usable testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
Higher eurycomanone percentage (>1%) is believed to have a greater efficacy on testosterone production, but that is not usually the case. Scientists from Biotropics believe the bioavailability of eurycomanone and glycosaponin in Tongkat Ali must exist in higher percentages to increase the secretion of luteinizing hormone, causing higher testosterone production.
On the other hand, Tongkat Ali may not work as an effective T-booster if the ingredient contains low bioavailability. Our analysis found that Tongkat Ali extract containing less than 0.5% of eurycomanone or less than 20% of eurypeptides reduces the efficacy and chances of increasing testosterone production.
More than 80% Tongkat Ali supplements do not work to boost testosterone as claimed due to low purity, potency and bioavailability – which are not regulated by FDA.
There are reported cases that Tongkat Ali supplements did not increase testosterone after prolonged use of more than 40 days despite taking 400mg daily. This was due to low levels of eurycomanone (<0.08%) found in the Tongkat Ali extract.
By comparing two different brands sold in the US, our research on two types of Tongkat Ali extract (i.e non-standardized extract vs standardized hot water extract) showed that non-standardized Tongkat Ali extract did not increase testosterone levels as claimed.
In our HPLC lab test, we found that the non-standardized extract has a low level of eurycomanone (<0.1%), below the minimum threshold of 1.5% – which is insufficient to induce any pharmacological effects on the body to produce more testosterone.
| Eurycomanone Content | Saponin Content
| Daily Dosage | Total Testosterone (percentage change) |
Non standardized extract
| <0.1% | 10% | 400mg | -40% |
Standardized hot-water extract
| 1.5% | 40% | 200mg | +80% – 150% |
Tongkat Ali standardized hot water extract with glycosaponin (saponin) content of 40% and eurycomanone of 0.8% to 1.5% have been reported to increase testosterone levels in 90% of the participants who took part in clinical human studies, indicating a high probability of it being considered effective.
Standardized Tongkat Ali hot water extract sets a new benchmark for men who are serious about testosterone-oriented benefits, gains, and long-term testosterone support.
Further analysis of 387 scientific articles published on the effects of Tongkat Ali on testosterone, 9 randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) are considered high-quality studies and 7 of those studies were conducted using standardized hot water extract.
In short, the probability of standardized extract to work based on 40-year-old men taking 400mg Tongkat Ali daily for 12 weeks is higher than 80%.
This concludes the superior potency of a standardized hot-water Tongkat Ali extract as an effective testosterone booster when consumed in moderate to high doses between 200mg to 600mg daily.
Tongkat Ali increases usable testosterone (i.e free testosterone) by potentially reducing Sex Hormone Globulin (SHBG). This action frees up more usable testosterone whilst activating the adrenal gland to produce more total testosterone. In theory, this could only work if you are using standardized Tongkat Ali extract.
Clinically tested Tongkat Ali using hot water standardized extract generally performs better due to standardization which retains the minimum threshold values of eurycomanone, eurypeptides, glycosaponin, potassium, magnesium and zinc to ensure optimal nutrition to produce more testosterone in our body:
✅ total testosterone
✅ free testosterone (i.e the most “usable” testosterone)
✅ dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
✅ dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
✅ progesterone
The other aspect to consider when assessing the effectiveness of Tongkat Ali on testosterone is when and how to use it. For optimal testosterone gains that are not covered in many studies is using Tongkat Ali in high doses (typically 400mg or 600mg) an hour before long runs.
The supplementation of Tongkat Ali brings greater advantage to your testosterone as the level drops (below your average baseline) when you are exercising or during endurance races – elevating your stamina and athletic performance based on our short-term and long-term assessment with highly-trained male athletes.
As a baseline reference, a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled study by Alice Erwig et.al showed greater testosterone increase of test participants consuming 200mg Tongkat Ali daily for 6 months with 3 times per week of exercise (for 60 minutes each).
When paired with testosterone-boosting exercises such as sprinting, running or weightlifting, Tongkat Ali helps to retain, support and optimize your testosterone during and after workouts.
Whilst there is plenty of anecdotal and empirical evidence from clinical studies, the effects of Tongkat Ali in boosting testosterone depends largely on age, health conditions and lifestyle. You may gain higher testosterone increase if you are active or when pairing Tongkat Ali with multivitamins, zinc and boron together with weight training exercises.
Here is a quick summary on the average increase of total testosterone based on various Tongkat Ali studies and pre-clinical trials:
Age (years) | Lifestyle | Testosterone increase |
24-30 | Active | 15% -30% |
31-40 | Active | 30% – 60% |
41-50 | Sedentary | 61% – 122% |
20-60 | Sedentary | 582 – 600%* |
*Note: Test results using 50mg of Physta® Tongkat Ali with multivitamins
Clinical trials and research studies showed that Tongkat Ali raises free testosterone between 15% to 600% in both men and women. This result may work in the real world if you are using a standardized hot-water Tongkat Ali root extract that is considered more potent. Adding multivitamins to your daily supplement and having an active lifestyle increases the percentage of larger testosterone gains over a longer period.
A placebo-controlled clinical trial on 50mg Physta® Tongkat Ali with multivitamins showed a 582% increase (from 1.67 ng/dL to 11.4 ng/dL) and a 600% increase (from 0.15 ng/dL to 1.05 ng/dL) of free testosterone in men and women respectively after 24 weeks.
Whilst this clinical study published by Food & Nutrition Research journal showed evidence of Tongkat Ali’s effect in increasing testosterone for males and females aged 25 to 65, Tongkat Ali may not work if it contains eurycomanone content less than 0.5%. Users are advised to buy potent Tongkat Ali root extract to increase the likelihood of testosterone gains.
Note: 19 male participants between 20 – 60 years consuming 50mg Physta® Tongkat Ali extract (Eurycoma Longifolia) with multivitamins showed 581% increase in free testosterone after the 24th week. Clinical trial registration NCT02865863.
Note: 28 female participants between 20 – 60 years consuming 50mg of Physta® Tongkat Ali extract (Eurycoma Longifolia) with multivitamins showed 600% increase in free testosterone after the 24th week. Clinical trial registration NCT02865863.
Tongkat Ali raises testosterone production from its bioactive ingredient known as eurycomanone. It works by activating the adrenal and pituitary glands via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
The mechanism of action of Tongkat Ali produces Free Testosterone (FT) from its binding hormone, the Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG).
Tongkat Ali reduces SHBG to produce more usable (i.e free testosterone), and activates Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in the adrenal gland to produce more testosterone.
There are two studies that confirm this:
The DHEA test result showed the largest testosterone increase between the 2nd week to the 8th week from Tongkat Ali supplementation, indicating that taking standardized hot water Tongkat Ali extract may have a significant boost from the activation of DHEA in human body.
Note: Test results of DHEA on 105 male participants between 50 – 70 years after consuming 200mg of Physta® Tongkat Ali extract (Eurycoma Longifolia) daily. Clinical trial registration (CTRI/2019/03/017959)
Apart from raising total testosterone, Tongkat Ali has effects on increasing free testosterone (i.e usable testosterone), which improves our libido, mood (both dopamine and cortisol stress hormone), protein synthesis to accelerate muscle growth and fat burn amongst others.
The first human clinical study on testosterone was published in 2012 showing promising results from the effects of Tongkat Ali supplementation. Based on 300+ research studies on Tongkat Ali in the last two decades, the consensus among scientists showed that Tongkat Ali has the most evidence on testosterone.
Tongkat Ali has the strongest evidence to boost testosterone
Whilst generally Tongkat Ali may work to boost total testosterone if you are 25, 50 or even 70, you may experience that free usable testosterone is harder to achieve unless you are taking potent Tongkat Ali pure root extract or with a set of healthy diet and exercises. These lifestyle changes denotes the importance of taking Tongkat Ali as a dietary supplement that may work more effectively with lifestyle changes.
Let’s investigate how effective is Tongkat Ali across a wide range of age groups.
If you are in your 20s and active, consuming Tongkat Ali may increase your testosterone levels. You may benefit from accelerated muscle growth and strength.
A recent study by Chan et al in 2021 with 32 males with an average age of 24 years showed that 600mg daily consumption of Tongkat Ali over a two-week period resulted in 15% higher levels of testosterone and 34% increase in free testosterone. The level of estrogen (estradiol) was reported to increase by 30% too.
For active young adults, Tongkat Ali is used in sports to enhance anaerobic performance, and also as a steroid replacement.
The same study also reported that:
“The raised testosterone following Eurycoma longifolia supplementations could benefit muscle and strength gain in young adults”
Age of the test subjects | 24 yrs |
Total Test subjects | 32 males |
Daily dosage | 600 mg daily |
Dosage duration | 2 weeks (14 days) |
Medical condition of the test subjects | Healthy |
Placebo test group (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Testosterone increase (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Name of scientists & researchers involved in the study | Kai Quin Chan, Claire Stewart , Neil Chester, Sareena H Hamzah, Ashril Yusof |
Published date | February 2021 |
Studies showed that Tongkat Ali raises testosterone for those above 40. If you are in your mid 40s and experiencing some level of androgen deficiency, there is a higher chance of more than 80% that Tongkat Ali supplementation may work for you based on our probability model.
A randomized controlled study conducted in 2020 by a group of researchers from the University of Santarina, Brazil reported that middle-aged men consuming 200mg Tongkat Ali daily with a 3-day exercise per week showed the most increase in testosterone during the 6-month period.
This 6-month-long study provides concrete evidence of Tongkat Ali’s effectiveness to boost testosterone if you are in your 40s.
Group consuming Tongkat Ali with 3 days per week exercise gained the most improvement
Here is the summary of Tongkat Ali testosterone study conducted on middle-aged men between 40 to 47 years.
Age of the test subjects | 47 years |
Total test subjects | 45 men |
Daily dosage | 200 mg |
Dosage duration & observation period | 6 months (180+ days) |
Medical condition of the test subjects | Androgen Deficiency |
Placebo test group (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Testosterone increase (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Name of scientists & researchers involved in the study | Alice Erwig Leitão 1, Melissa Carvalho de Souza Vieira 2, Andreia Pelegrini 2, Edson Luiz da Silva 3, Adriana Coutinho de Azevedo Guimarães 2 |
Published date | May 2020 |
Two independent clinical studies conducted in 2021 and 2014 showed that Tongkat Ali increased testosterone in senior men and women above 50 years.
The first study involved a group of 105 male between 50 to 70 years of age with a placebo- controlled group with results showing significant improvement in testosterone.
A second study with 13 males and 12 females between 57 to 72 years over a 5 week period showed improvement in testosterone between 61% for male, and 122% for females when subjected to 400mg of Tongkat Ali daily.
Age of the test subjects | 50 – 70 years |
Total test subjects | 105 male |
Daily dosage | 200 mg |
Dosage duration | 12 weeks |
Medical condition of the test subjects | Healthy |
Placebo test group (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Testosterone increase (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Name of scientists & researchers involved in the study | Pragya Pandey, Annie George, Govinda Narke, Yogendra Kumar Choudhary, Sasikala M. Chinnappan |
Date of study | May 2021 |
Age of the test subjects | 57-72 years |
Total test subjects | 13 males & 12 females |
Daily dosage | 400 mg |
Dosage duration | 5 weeks (35 days) |
Medical condition of the test subjects | Not reported |
Placebo test group (Yes/ No) | No |
Testosterone increase (Yes/ No) | Yes |
Name of scientists & researchers involved in the study | Ralf R. Henkel, Ruxiang Wang, Susan H. Bassett, Tao Chen, Na Liu, Ying Zhu and Mohd Ismail Tambi |
Date of study | 2013 |
Award-winning professor Dr. Andrew Huberman claimed that consuming 400mg of Tongkat Ali daily has the effect of increasing testosterone levels between 100 to 200 points. However, experts found out that the Momentous Huberman Tongkat Ali supplement is not clinically tested for efficacy, raising further doubt whether it worked to increase testosterone.
On the upside, health experts and well-informed consumers are now switching to clinically tested Tongkat Ali hot water standardized extract and reputable brands such as AKARALI Physta is viewed as the best natural testosterone booster that gives your 70 to 80% chance to increase your testosterone if you have low-T symptoms.
The truth is, any testosterone gains from taking Tongkat Ali supplements are attributed by Tongkat Ali’s potency, purity and type of extraction technology (eg: hot water extract vs ethanol-based extract). For instance, a potent Tongkat Ali with a lower dosage works more effectively than a less potent Tongkat Ali with a higher dosage to increase testosterone.
Meanwhile, US-based urologist Dr. Rena Malik from the University of Maryland suggested that hot water Tongkat Ali extract brings optimal health benefits. Therefore, you may want to buy standardized hot water Tongkat Ali extract to gain the most increase in your testosterone levels.
If you want the best Tongkat Ali, watch out for hot water root extract
In addition, health experts in California prefer recommending clinically tested Tongkat Ali extract to aging men and athletes for measurable testosterone gains compared to generic lab-tested Tongkat Ali supplements that are sold in the US.
This explains why MIT-formulated Physta® Tongkat Ali extract has undergone more than 26 clinical trials to verify its efficacy on testosterone. Some of the clinical trials showed a 500% to 600% increase in free testosterone when combined with multivitamins, making it one of the most effective Tongkat Ali for testosterone.
This brings home to the point that many American users are now using Tongkat Ali as a long-term natural testosterone supplement, placing it amongst the best herbal supplements without living with the permanent side effects and downsides of TRT.
Tongkat Ali is natural alternative to Testosterone Replacement Therapy (TRT) and shown to restore serum testosterone levels
In conclusion, decades of Tongkat Ali clinical studies on humans and animals showed that this herb has a strong potential to elevate testosterone levels, particularly middle-aged adults, seniors, and those diagnosed with premature aging hormones.
There is a greater consensus that Tongkat Ali is viewed as a scientifically proven herb due to its wide range of health benefits and its effects on our endocrine system. With Yellow Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia) taking the lead as the most effective testosterone booster that delivers consistent results, choosing a standardized pure root extract that is 3rd party lab-tested may bring you the highest gain.
If Tongkat Ali did not raise your testosterone after your blood test, perhaps you should consider how you can gain more from a potent or stronger Tongkat Ali extract.
Do check out 10 tips before buying Tongkat Ali supplements to ensure you are getting the best results. Lastly, please refer to our FAQ on Tongkat Ali for further information related to Tongkat Ali supplementation.
Naressa Khan contributes regularly on AKARALI. As a researcher and investigative journalist, Naressa is all about creating, deconstructing, and reassembling meaningful content through words and facts. With this approach always in mind, she eagerly explores the nuances in life via the aspects of lifestyle, culture, travel, health, and wellness in Malaysia .
Our articles are third party reviewed by our panel of experts and medical advisors to ensure the facts are accurate and credible. These are validated against multiple source references which include but not limited to research studies, peer-reviewed journals, pre-clinical studies, clinical tests and other credible publications.
Our panel of medical advisors and experts are highly experienced in their individual fields. However, they do not provide any medical advice or recommendations arising from content published in this article.
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